As we saw from the last lesson, object oriented programming allows us to scale our software in a convenient way. There is another powerful way object-oriented programming allows us to structure our programs. That is through a family-like structure called inheritance that gives rise to polymorphism. The following exercise will illustrate how one may use this programming to their advantage.
# inheritance.py
class Automobile():
'''
This is the base "parent" class and
generally should not be instantiated.
'''
number_of_doors = 2
def __init__(self, year, make, model):
self.year = year
self.make = make
self.model = model
def __repr__(self):
return f"""Automobile Data:
Year of manufacture : {self.year}
Automobile make : {self.make}
Automobile model : {self.model}"""
class Truck(Automobile):
'''
A Truck object is a type of Automobile.
'''
def __init__(
self, year, make, model, bed_type, bed_size, axel_weight
):
super().__init__(year, make, model)
self.bed_type = bed_type
self.bed_size = bed_size
self.axel_weight = axel_weight
class Sedan(Automobile):
'''
A Sedan is not a Truck but is a type of Automobile.
'''
number_of_doors = 4
def __init__(self, year, make, model, engine_type, engine_size):
super().__init__(year, make, model)
self.engine_type = engine_type
self.engine_size = engine_size
class Coupe(Automobile):
'''
A Coupe is not a Sedan or a Truck but is a type of Automobile.
'''
def __init__(self, year, make, model, engine_type, engine_size):
super().__init__(year, make, model)
self.engine_type = engine_type
self.engine_size = engine_size
class Corvette(Coupe):
'''
A Corvette is a specific type of Coupe.
'''
def __init__(self, year, edition, engine_size):
super().__init__(
year, "Chevrolet", "Corvette", "V8", engine_size
)
self.edition = edition
def __repr__(self):
return f"""This car is a {self.make} {self.model},"""\
f""" {self.edition} Edition made in {self.year}.
It has a {self.engine_size} cubic-inch {self.engine_type} engine."""\
f"""It is awesome!!!"""
t = Truck(1990, "Ford", "F-250", "Flat", "Long (8')", '3/4 Ton')
s = Sedan(2017, "Hyundai", "Elantra", 'Straight 4', 92)
p = Coupe(2012, "Toyota", "Camry", "V6", 205)
c = Corvette(1975, "Sting Ray", 350)
for car in [t,s,p,c]:
print(car, '\n')
Here is what should happen
$ python inheritance.py
Automobile Data:
Year of manufacture : 1990
Automobile make : Ford
Automobile model : F-250
Automobile Data:
Year of manufacture : 2017
Automobile make : Hyundai
Automobile model : Elantra
Automobile Data:
Year of manufacture : 2012
Automobile make : Toyota
Automobile model : Camry
This car is a Chevrolet Corvette, Sting Ray Edition made in 1975.
It has a 350 cubic-inch V8 engine. It is awesome!!!
$
Classes have the following syntax to define them:
# class
# name
# |
# v
class Name(Parent):
# ^ ^
# | |
# class parent
# keyword class
# name
That is, the class with the name Name is a type of the previously-defined class called Parent. This means that class Name “inherits” all the attributes from the Parent class. We saw this in inheritance.py when we had a parent class, Automobile, pass its attributes to each of its children. For example, in the Truck class we see that a Truck instance was able to use the __repr__ method belonging to the Automobile class without it having to be explicitly coded in the Truck class. Another way of describing the relationship between Automobile and Truck is that a Truck class is a type of Automobile class.
This is a very useful feature as it allows a programmer to avoid having to recode every method and attribute for a set of similar classes. This also allows a clean structuring of sub-classes or “child” classes to produce powerful data structures. Much of this will come to bear later on when we do more interesting things with object-oriented programming.
Another feature of inheritance is the idea that a child class need not be exactly the same as its parent class. In fact, a the utility of this construct hinges on the idea that a child class can be a specialized instance of a parent class. This allows the creation of many child classes that specialize in particular things. The child class may take the attributes that the parent class has and build on them, adding its own attributes and methods to do what it needs to do. This concept is called “polymorphism” meaning “having many forms”. After experimenting with this structure, it should become apparent how this may be used to build large data structures that model complex systems.
We saw this as well in the Truck class. The Automobile parent class had only 4 attributes namely, number_of_doors, year, make and model. The Truck class expanded on this data set by adding attributes that are specific to a Truck, namely bed_type, bed_size and axel_weight. Furthermore, each child class of Automobile brought something unique to the table by adding its own attributes or methods. In the case of the Corvette class, it inherited from the Coupe class, a sub-class of Automobile. This means it took all the attributes of both the Automobile class and the Coupe class and then added its own methods and attributes.
super functionYou may have also noticed that sometimes things defined in a parent class are redefined in a child class. This is not an accident. It is common to have a generic implementation of each method in a parent class and then a specific implementation in the child classes tailored to their specific needs. When any method or attribute is redefined in a child class this is called “overriding” the method or attribute.
This is something you can and absolutely should do when programming. It is one of the great strengths of object-oriented programming and allows the utility of polymorphism to be expressed to its fullest extent. We saw this above in every child implementation of the constructor method or __init__ method. Every child has an __init__ method distinct from each other and the parent class. That means the the original __init__ belonging to Automobile was overridden by each child. Other overriding examples are in the __repr__ function and the number_of_doors variable. In each case the overriding was done to make the class act in a unique way by defining specific behavior for a given method.
One important drawback of overriding a parent method is that, for the child, the parent’s version of the method is no longer available to use if needed. To deal with this and make classes more flexible, Python has the super function. This function returns a temporary instance of the parent of the class from which it was called. This instance can be then used to call a parent’s implementation of any method. As we saw above we needed to ensure that year, make and model were defined in the class structure for each child but rather than writing 3 extra lines of code for each child, we simply pass in the needed variables and then use super().__init__(year, make, model) to get the parent class to do that for us. Furthermore, the Corvette class specified some variables that would always be true for itself when calling the parent Coupe class.
For each of these features we have introduced some of the possible uses of each but you should understand that we have only scratched the surface of what object-oriented programming can do. In later lessons you will have the opportunity to use these principles in a more powerful and tangible way.
__repr__ methodOne thing you may still have questions about is the __repr__ method. The __repr__ name stands for “representation” and is intended to return a string representation of the object.
One more powerful feature of object-oriented programming is the idea that a given method name will act in an expected way in any instance of an object. Remember that in Python, everything is an object. Therefore when we call print(obj) where obj is the object we wish to print, what is actually happens is that the print function looks at the object and calls its __repr__ method (i.e. it calls obj.__repr__()) or some equivalent command. To make this work for any Python object, every object must have a default implementation of __repr__. Python enforces this by making all objects inherit from a base class that implements basic functionality like having a default string representation of any object. Therefore, when you implement a __repr__ method you are overriding the Python base class’s implementation of __repr__ and when you call print on some instance of the class. This will be inherited by any children of that class unless they override the definition too. There are more functions like __repr__ that allow you to customize your classes. You can learn more about them in Advanced Mastery below.
Copy your code from inheritance.py into a separate text file and use code comments to mark every example in the code of children using inherited traits with something like # inheritance used here. Mark up the code in a similar fashion for every example of polymorphism and every example of overriding.
__repr__ for every class so all of their data members are shown when you print them.__repr__ method for each class.inheritance.py that more fully describe each class. Why would you want certain attributes? Are there some you wouldn’t want or some that are unnecessary?Learn more about customized methods in the Python Documentation on the subject. Why would you want to alter these types of functions?
Implement operator overloading for some classes you make up yourself. These classes could represent complex numbers or numbers with units.